Classical conditioning Essay Example for Free

Classical conditioning Essay Classical conditioning is a form of basic learning the body automatically responds to a stimulus. One stimulus takes on the properties of another. The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) is credited for discovering the basic principles of classical conditioning whilst he was studying digestion in dogs. He developed a technique for collecting dog’s salivary secretions. Pavlov (cited in Eysneck M.W 2009) noticed that the dogs would often start salivating before they were given any food or saw the feeding bucket or even when they heard the footstep of the laboratory assistant coming to feed them. Quite by accident Pavlov had discovered that the environmental control of behaviour can be changed as a result of two stimuli becoming associated with each other. These observations led to what’s now called classical conditioning. A neutral stimulus (such as a bell) which normally wouldn’t produce a response (such a salivating) eventually becomes paired with another stimulus (such as the food) this is referred to an unconditional response. When the bell and food (unconditional stimulus) are paired often enough the dogs start to salivate as soon as they hear the bell and before the food is served. When this occurs conditioning has taken place. (Cited in Burns 1995) Pavlov argued that if dogs could be conditioned to salivate then it is possible to apply the process to bodily process that effect illness and mental health disorders. Nowadays classical conditioning is applied in the treatment of phobias and in aversion therapies.(Cited in Burns 1995). Operant conditioning Operant conditioning is the process of a behaviour in which the likelihood of a specific behaviour is increased or decreased through positive or negative reinforcement. The theory is based on Thorndike (1993) law of effects which state that behaviour is a function of its consequences (cited in O’ Brien 2009). Skinner used observation as a leading approach to operate conditioning. A key principle of operant conditioning was that where behaviour is reinforced (that is where people are rewarded when they behave in a particular way). It will tend to be repeated under particular circumstances. (Cited in Gross R 2010). For example a mother picking up a crying infant and if the baby stops crying when picked up, the probablility of the mother repeating the same behaviour increases since the cessation of the baby’s crying is a reinforced.(Gerry, K et alt page45) . Reinforcers can also be primary or secondary. Primary reinforcers are our basic needs like food, water and shelter. Secondary reinforcers are events that have become rewarded through their association. For example money, because money can satisfy people needs it takes on reinforcing characteristics of its own. Operant conditioning can be used in behaviour management and in education, for example children are rewarded when they do well in school and punished if they fail, if they see someone getting rewarded they are more likely to copy the good behaviour. Operant conditioning can also be used to help people with addictions along with classical conditioning,for example in alcohol and drug addiction. Operant conditioning is also used in pain management and in social skills training. It has also been used to reward schizophrenic patients for good behaviour. For example given them tokens in exchange for sweet when they behave well in hospital.(Aylon Azrin,1968,cited in Eysenck 2009). Social Learning The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura (1965), has become the most influential theory of learning and development. Bandura argued that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning. He argued that people could learn new information by observing other people this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviours.(Cited in Eysenck, M 2009) for example Teenagers wanting to be thin like the models that they observe on the television or on the computer. Bandura (1965) Three groups of young children watched a film about adults behaving aggressively towards inflatable Bobo dolls. In one of the films it showed adults being rewarded for aggressive behaviour. The second group were scolded and the third group were neither rewarded or punished. All children showed increased aggression if offered a reward for what they learnt, and the behaviour decreases if they are punished. (Cited in Gross 2009). for example social learning can be learnt thro ugh the media. Pop stars are often seen as role models, and children of smokers are more likely to smoke when they are adults. Phobic patient benefit more from watching fearful patients gradually overcome their fears. (Cited in Gerry,K.et alt 1996) There are three core concepts in social learning, first learning through observation, mental state is essential part of the process and the theory also recognises that just because something is learnt doesn’t mean it will result in a change in behaviour.(cited in Burns 1995)Positive reinforcement is far more effective than negative reinforcement. Bandura believed that observation and direct reinforcement could account for all types of learning. He argued that emotional behaviour could be switched off through modelling procedure. Learning need not necessarily be correct. Through learning human behaviour can be modified. Learning is very important when working in social care, helpers need to know how to modify client’s attitude toward their illness so the helper can work with them to recover.(cited in Burns 2005)

Social Construct Of Mental Illness Stigmatization Sociology Essay

Social Construct Of Mental Illness Stigmatization Sociology Essay In order to begin this essay it is worth outlining some of the meanings behind the terms mental illness and stigma. Mental illness is a conceptually problematic term as there as different ways of speaking about normal and abnormal behaviour (Pilgrim and Rogers, 1999). It can broadly be described as a type of health problem which affects an individuals thoughts, feelings and the way they interact around other people. It also has a cognitive dimension as it can affect anybody at any time and may be temporary or permanent (Pilgrim, 2005). Scheff (1984) discusses the medicalisation of mental illness, he argues that residual deviance (pg. 36) can refer to the variety of conditions which are held under the umbrella term of mental illness simply because they do not come under any other category, such as criminal. Essentially, any form of unacceptable or deviant behaviour which is not classed in other ways, becomes a form of mental illness. Scheffs approach uses labelling theory to discuss m ental health; this is something I will turn to later. Surveys have revealed that the majority of us are acquainted with mental illness and are familiar with it damaging effects either through a friend or relative etc. 15% of us have had a mental health problem ourselves (Layard, 2005). Stigma can be defined as the social consequences of negative attributions about a person based upon stereotype. In the case of people with mental health problems, it is presumed that they lack intelligibility and social competence and that they are dangerous (Pilgrim, 2005, pg 157). Goffman (1963) argued that stigma spoils a persons social identity, it creates a gap between a typical, ordinary social identity which we expect others to have and our real social identity. It disrupts everyday social interaction because normal individuals do not know how to behave with stigmatized individuals and vice versa (pg. 15). Goffman identified three types of stigma, stigma deriving from physical defects or abnorm alities, stigma of race and religion and finally perceived blemishes of individual character this includes such things as sexuality, political beliefs and mental health (Goffman, 1963, pg. 14). Goffmans work is very important in discussing the complexities of stigma and discrimination and I plan to use his work throughout this essay. Skinner et al (1995) argue that a hierarchy of stigma exists in which inferior social statuses such as prostitute and alcoholic are ranked. They identified mental illness as being at the bottom of the hierarchy. The stigma of mental illness is different from others because it involves changes in behaviour which attracts negative judgment by others. It makes people wander about an individuals stability and whether they pose a risk to themselves or others (Bury, 2005). In order to better understand the stigma of mental illness it is necessary to conduct research into the lay views held amongst the public, this includes accounts from people with mental health problems (MHP) who discuss their experiences, and also the views of those without MHP (Pilgrim, 2005). A qualitative study by Dinos et al (2004) which researched the experiences of 46 people with a mental illness revealed that stigma was a major concern to most of the participants. Stigma defines individuals in terms of their mental illness and has the potential to impact on all aspects of life. Goffman (1963) formulated stigma into a double perspective, the first is obvious to others and cannot be hidden. He referred to this as discrediting. The second type is discreditable and is not necessarily noticeable to others (pg. 14). With this form the problem is managing personal information, whether this means hiding the fact that they have a mental illness, or hiding the nature and extent of the c ondition. Dinos et al (2004) found that the management of information was a major problem and a potent source of stress, anxiety and further feelings of stigma even in the absence of any direct discrimination (pg. 176). Some of the patients chose to downplay their illness by telling others it was another type, such as depression. Experiences of stigma were also dependent on the nature of the illness, those with depression and anxiety were more likely to feel stigmatized. While those with schizophrenia and bi-polar disorder were more likely to experience physical and verbal attacks. The effects of stigma can be extremely damaging, individuals may feel depersonalized, rejected and disempowered (Pilgrim, 2005, pg 158). This can lead to isolation and an acceptance of the treatment received as justified. This in turn can cause a further decline in their health (Dinos, et al, 2004). In terms of lay views of mental health held amongst the public, these are usually ones of distrust and sometimes hostility. Many people hold stereotypical views of mentally ill people in which psychotic behaviour is expected (Pilgrim, 2005). The influence of the media is important here and is something I will turn to later. Attribution theory (Corrigan et al, 2000 and Bury, 2005) can be used to explain stigma and discriminatory practices. It consists of two aspects, controllability and stability the former refers to the extent to which individuals are responsible for their own mental illness and stability refers to whether the illness can improve over time and to what extent. Studies which use attribution theory reveal that many believe that individuals with MHP are to blame for their illness and do not deserve any sympathy. They believe them to be potentially dangerous and should be avoided. Also, they show no optimism about people reaching recovery (Corrigan, et al, 2000). An examp le of such a study comes from Weiner and colleagues (cited in Corrigan, 2000), they asked 59 students to rate various disability groups according to aspects of controllability and stability, the results revealed that they viewed mental illness much more severely than other illnesses. The widespread stigmatization of mental illness is rooted historically in fear of the unknown, our tendency to attack ridicule or laugh at what we dont understand (Lalani and London, 2006). Since the deinstitutionalization of mental illness and the introduction of care in the community initiatives, this fear of the other has become much more significant as the boundaries between the sane and insane have become blurred. We have a strong need to distance ourselves from things that we fear, therefore the stigma of mental illness is one of panic and hostility. Having discussed the stigma of mental illness and the perceptions held amongst the population in a little more depth, this leaves the question of how it is culturally constructed. Thoits (1985) discusses how we learn to act and feel through repeated social interaction. Our emotions are governed by the norms of society which we internalize from an early age. We know how we should feel in a variety of circumstances e.g. sad at a funeral lively at a party, happy at a wedding, proud on success, angry at an insult and so on. (pg. 224). Equally, we recognize when our behaviour may be viewed as inappropriate to others and learn to control it. For example, big boys dont cry and keep a stiff upper lip (pg. 224). We have a shared awareness of how we ought to behave in the social world, therefore anybody who breaks these norms is subject to ridicule. Thoits develops a theory which contrasts with Scheff (1984). She argues that self-labelling processes are significant in mental health, as people assess their own behaviour and seek professional help voluntarily. Scheff on the other hand focuses on the involuntary nature of mental health treatment and how people come to be defined as mentally ill; his concern lies with the institutionalization of mental illness. The perceptions of people with mental illness held by wider society are ones of devaluation and discrimination (Link cited in Gaebel et al, 2006). When a person is labelled as mentally ill, these conceptions become part of his or her sense of self. Labelling theory is useful in understanding the stigma of mental illness. We react to mental illness is a similar way to crime and the criminal. This approach to deviance focuses on the reaction of others in maintaining and amplifying rule breaking or secondary deviance (Marsh et al, 2000). The labelling process can have a detrimental effect on a persons status and identity. Their old identity is discarded and a new master status label takes its place. In the case of the mentally ill individual, his or her condition comes to define who they are, regardless of the other roles they may have (such as parenthood or their job). Their stigmatized role of mentally ill dominates their existence (Marsh et al, 2000 and Pilgrim, 2005). The negative e ffects of labelling are very clear, research has suggested that employers are less likely to offer jobs to those who have been labelled mentally ill. They are also less likely to be given housing and more likely to have charges made against them for violent crimes. Some studies however, have indicated that labelling has had positive benefits for the individual (Pilgrim, 2005). The main source of information for the general public about mental illness comes from the mass media. The media have come to represent the beliefs and perceptions of wider society and frequently exaggerate events and portray inaccurate stereotypes of people with MHP. There is an unquestioning acceptance in the media of the rising toll of killings as a result of community care (Dunn, 2002). For example, in the Daily Mail (21 February, 2003) the headline 400 care in the community patients living by murder park was printed after a woman was found dead in East London. After discovering that a large number of care in the community patients lived near the park, the police and the media assumed she was murdered by a deranged psychiatric patient living in the community. Headlines like this are not uncommon and newspapers consistently present the image of the dangerous, unstable, incurable mental patient (Lalani and London, 2006). Other examples of hard-hitting headlines include violent, mad. So docs set him free. New community care scandal (The Sun, 26 February 2005) and Bonkers Bruno locked up (The Sun, 22 September 2003). Philo (1996) found that two thirds of news coverage made associations between mental illness and violence, but media depictions are not consistent with the facts about mental health and violence. Home office statistics indicate that there is little or no correlation between violence and mental illness. In reality, people with MHP are more likely to be the victims of crime than the perpetrators (Dunn, 2002). There is a lot of empirical evidence to suggest that the media informs us about mental illness and that their depictions are characteristically inaccurate and unfavourable (Wahl, 1992, pg. 351). Wahl and Roth (cited in Wahl, 1992) found that mentally ill characters in prime time TV shows lacked a social identity. They were usually single, unemployed and described negatively with adjectives like aggressive confused and unpredictable (pg. 345). Man y other studies have produced similar results, with dangerousness and violence being the most common traits of people with MHP. Wahl argues that these portrayals must have an effect on our behaviour and attitudes towards mental illness. Many studies have demonstrated that repeated exposure to media stereotypes in general influences conceptions of social reality (pg. 346). He cites research that demonstrates that heavy viewers of television tend to relate the real world to televisions distorted representations. One study asked students to complete a questionnaire about mental health before and after a viewing of One flew over the cuckoos nest those who saw the film had a less positive view of mental illness than those who hadnt seen it (Wahl, 1992). It is clear then that the overall relationship between the media and the mentally ill is not in dispute: it is one of sensationalism, exaggeration and fear mongering (Lalani and London, 2006). It is important however to mention that not a ll aspects of the media perpetuate negative stereotypes and it can be a useful tool in tackling discrimination and stigma. For many people living with a mental illness, the cultural attitudes of fear, hostility and ignorance has contributed to experiences of isolation and social exclusion. A report by the Citizens advice Bureau (CAB, 2003) revealed that most people with a MHP are unemployed and that those who did have jobs end up leaving because their employers convince them that they are unable to cope. Jo, a mental health service user discussed her experiences at work in a report to the mind inquiry (Dunn, 2002 pg. 11) when she informed her boss that she had to see a psychiatrist his reaction said it all, as soon as mental illness is mentioned people literally back away from you. Pilgrim (2005) highlights that people with MHP are three time as likely to be unemployed than those with physical disabilities. This is mainly because of the attitudes of employers and not because of a lack of willingness on the part of the individual (CAB, 2003). There also exists a disincentive to work for those who are in r eceipt of welfare benefits. For many, their income upon finding work would only increase at a small rate, if it all, and they would lose out on any supplementary benefits such as housing benefits. Further to this is the difficulty in having their benefits reinstated should the job not work out (CAB, 2003). Social exclusion is a complicated and often cyclical process. It can affect a persons access to education, social services and health care. Such limited access to one service can have a knock on effect on others. For example, restricted use of education and training opportunities can sustain unemployment further which in turn contributes to the benefit trap and can of course deepen a persons exclusion and cause a further decline in their health (Dunn, 2002). It is clear then that the social exclusion of people with MHP denies them the basic levels of citizenship, happiness and wealth available to everybody else (Pilgrim, 2005). To conclude, the stigma of mental illness is based on generalizations about insanity. These stereotypes are constructed through feelings of fear and anxiety over things we do not understand and struggle to relate to. There is no doubt that our views of mental illness are completely ungrounded and are transmitted repeatedly through the mass media, thus reinforcing a distorted image in our collective psyche. Stigma is used to identify and expose something abnormal about an individual (Goffman, 1963). However some are critical of the stigma framework and argue that it is too individualistic. If we study the collective discriminatory practices which cause exclusion for many people with mental illness, such as poverty and labour market disadvantage, then strategies for change may be easier to develop (Pilgrim, 2005). Layard (2005) identified mental health as our biggest social problem. It is not just a major health concern, it is a political issue. With such high numbers of people affecte d my mental illness, the costs to the economy are significant. Tackling stigmatization is an essential step in improving the lives of those affected. This involves inclusion of groups themselves, as only those with the knowledge and experience cans suggest what is right for them.

Health Essays Caffeine Health Effects

Health Essays Caffeine Health Effects Caffeine Health Effects Abstract Caffeine is the most commonly consumed ‘drug’ in the world that is said to have been discovered in the Paleolithic Period. It is found in basically everything that people consume including all types of food, soft drinks, energy drinks, coffee, tea, and chocolate. The purpose of caffeine is to help strengthen attentiveness and diminish exhaustion. Taking too much or abusing the use of caffeine, can cause side effects, but can all be avoided if taken in reasonable amounts. So many beneficial effects come with consuming this drug from helping people in sports, to losing weight, to increasing alertness, and repelling things such as snails and slugs. Testing is done often to find more ways that caffeine is useful in individual’s lives. In the author’s opinion it is believed that caffeine has many more positive effects that overcome the negative effects. Introduction and History Caffeine has been around for many years and is having an impact on more and more people everyday. A great deal of evidence denotes that the consumption of caffeine goes all the way back to the Paleolithic Period (Magkos Kavouras, 2005). Some may think that caffeine is bad for the body and does no good, however many Americans consume caffeine everyday in their diet. Although caffeine has both positive and negative effects, there are much more positive effects if taken responsibly. Caffeine is a drug that stimulates the central nervous system, which causes high alertness. Taking too much of any drug is going to lead to the chances of having side effects. The side effects can be prevented by decreasing the amount of caffeine that is taken into the body. Thus, from increasing alertness, mood, psychomotor performance, to helping as a dietary aid and extending exercise in people suffering from heart failure, to being used as a repellent for mollusks, caffeine is used in many ways and has many positive effects that go along with it. People need to have a better understanding of caffeine before making judgments. Consumption The main source of caffeine consumption comes from soft drinks. Caffeine is an additive used in such drinks to sweeten the taste. It can show no flavor depending on the amount taken, but the positive effects that come with it are an increased attention rate and better mood. Because of these effects, more people thrive off caffeinated drinks. Looking around, there are soft drink machines everywhere giving more people access to this stimulant. Yet, many people believe that they should not be in schools or places where it is efficient for kids because they say it is so unhealthy for them (Keast Riddell, 2006). Others will argue this in saying that caffeine is good for the body as long as it’s not abused. This is a true statement, and as a result educating more people on the effects of caffeine would be very helpful to everyone. Besides soda and other soft drinks, caffeine is also found in coffee. Coffee has many positive effects to it, such that coffee stimulates the brain and increases energy and mood, and can help in preventing diseases such as skin, liver, and colon cancer, and some others. Both the combination of daily exercise and a cup of coffee are said by scientists to help in the prevention of skin cancer. This has been tested and proven on hairless mice, which have extremely sensitive skin to the sun. Stated from The Times of India, one group was given caffeinated water to drink, another group exercised on a running wheel at its own convenience, while the third group both drank caffeine and exercised on the wheel, and the control group neither drank nor exercised. All of the mice were exposed to ultraviolet radiation, which the results in comparing all the groups to the control group showed that the caffeine drinkers showed an increase of 95% in ultraviolet radiation stimulating apoptosis. Apoptosis is the process where cells with damaged DNA are destroyed against illness. The second group showed a 120% increase, while the mice that both consumed caffeine and exercised showed close to a 400% increase (â€Å"Coffee May Prevent,† 2007). A study was also developed to research the effects of caffeine on liver cancer. More than 90,000 Japanese were used in a study and it was found that people that drank coffee daily or close to every day had reduced the risk of liver cancer by nearly half compared to those who never drank coffee. â€Å"The American Cancer Society estimates that 18,920 cases of liver cancer were diagnosed in the United States last year and some 14,270 people died of the illness† (â€Å"Coffee May Help,† 2008). As a result, it is well stated that caffeine can reduce the chances of liver cancer. According to many scientists, there is a highly antioxidant compound that is found in coffee that reduces the chances of colon cancer, which is the second leading cause of cancer death in the United States. This compound found in coffee is called methylpyridinium, however is not found in raw coffee beans but is created during the roasting process. Tests were brought out to scrutinize this compound even more, so specially equipped extracts of the coffee were exposed to certain lab situations of human intestinal cells for three days and were compared to cells that were not exposed to coffee. In the experiment, coffee extracts were found to have increased the activity levels of phase II enzymes. Then, to determine whether it had the same effect in living systems, a group of twenty-four rats was evenly divided into three groups. Each group was fed different diets, either a normal diet, a diet mixed with coffee extract, or a normal diet containing pure methylpyridinium. The tests showed that rats that were fed the coffee extract had a 24-40% increase in phase II enzymes and the group with the pure methylpyridinium showed an increase in the enzyme activity levels (â€Å"Highly Active,† 2003). Results show that coffee is proven to fight cancer in living systems. Caffeine can help in such diseases as cancer in which caffeine and another substance called theophylline are found in many products like coffee, chocolate, and many soft drinks. It is said that they can block enzymes that are crucial for cell growth, which means that one day it could be used to stop cell growth all together and avoid blood clots that can cause heart attacks and strokes (â€Å"Caffeine Boost,† 2002). It is not just coffee that prevents cancer, it is the caffeine in coffee that is preventing this disease. As most know, there is no cure for cancer, although the tests above show the many ways in which caffeine can help prevent one of the leading causes of deaths. Despite the positive effects of consuming coffee, here in the United States, drinking coffee is consumed most by adults. However, in Guatemala, it is very common among children. It is one of the first liquids given to babies after milk in Guatemala, even though it may affect the cognitive function by damaging iron levels. It is also known to hinder with the iron absorption and iron status of pregnant women and their babies, which is why it is said that pregnant woman should give up coffee during the term of pregnancy because it could cause miscarriages (Engle Vasdias et al, 1999). Nonetheless, not consuming coffee while pregnant and not giving coffee to such young children can avoid these negative effects. Sports and Diet Caffeine is known as one of the most widely used pick-me-ups in sports because of it’s ability to increase alertness and mood. Many athletes depend on this stimulant to help them carry on with their game if they are feeling a little drowsy or incapable to perform in an expected manner. Using caffeine is often used to improve physical and mental performance. It improves physical performance by causing alertness and giving the athlete energy to perform and improves mental performance by stimulating the central nervous system. This helps the athletes have higher levels of concentration (Magkos Kavouras, 2005). Using caffeine instead of other types of steroids and drugs is much cheaper and has less health effects. It also has less ineligibility cases compared to many other drugs. Being cut from a team is not the only consequence if caught using steroids or drugs, but it is also considered a felony. Therefore, many athletes should take caffeine over steroids to increase energy (Magkos Kavouras, 2005). Unless caffeine is taken in substantial amounts, some side effects may occur. Taking in massive quantities of caffeine may trigger dehydration that could affect functioning. It may also cause gastrointestinal pain and other side effects, such that caffeine is absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract and spread throughout the tissues of the body. Athletes that are abusing the use of caffeine may notice an occurrence in nervousness or an increase in heart rate and may even lead up to seizures or a coma. Caffeine has to be taken with some caution, because of the possible negative side effects that could take place, but remembering to take in only what is needed will help bring out only the positive effects (Magkos Kavouras, 2005). Since caffeine is found in so many foods and over the counter medications, it is becoming to show an increase in all diets around the world. Many people that are trying to lose weight take caffeine pills or eat a diet that is high in caffeine for the energy, similar to those as athletes that use it to enhance performance. Though caffeine pills should not be taken everyday and should be taken early in the day to reduce the chances of losing sleep at night. They help in increasing energy levels and suppressing hunger. This is very helpful for people who do not have the energy to get up and exercise. Some people may need that extra boost to get them started (Striegel-Moore Franko et al, 2006). On the other hand, it is not a fundamental nutrient, nor good for the health if taken too often. Too much can become addictive and cause problems like eating disorders, which is very common among young adults. Eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia are found more common among girls than in boys. Many girls in their teens have more pressure on themselves and feel the need to lose extra weight. Consuming large amounts of caffeine will enhance their energy and suppress the need for food, or hunger. Even though they may already be thin, they will continue starving themselves because they believe they are fat. It’s a constant battle that never ends and it is a very difficult disease to fight. Effects on Sleep When caffeine is consumed in reasonable amounts, everyday consumption of it can be helpful and have many beneficial effects on human behavior and sleep showing more people with enhanced mental functioning. Imagine truck drivers who drive such long distances day and night, consuming caffeine can help stay alert and focused on the road. Many accidents occur in a year because of people falling asleep at the wheel. Taking caffeine for better functioning reasons while driving or other reasons can be very beneficial. Regardless of the positive effects of reducing fatigue and better functioning, there are the downfalls of consuming too much caffeine. Too much caffeine has a big effect on your sleeping ability. Sleep disorders are becoming more and more known to many children and adults because of the amount of caffeine they are taking in. Large amounts of caffeine taken at night will make it much harder to fall asleep. People face more problems like feeling tired when they wake up or waking up in the middle of the night and not being able to fall back asleep. Although, the majority of people are very good at the amount of caffeine they take in to get the most out of the positive effects (Orbeta Overpeck et al, 2005). Effects on Human Behavior Rather than better mental functioning purposes and an increase in alertness, caffeine is also shown to improve many effects on human behavior. For instance, psychomotor performance is enhanced with caffeine intake. A psychomotor skill deals with being able to make movements that are essential to complete a task, however they are skills that are performed often without even thinking how they are done. Handwriting is an example of a very difficult psychomotor skill where as people have their own unique way of writing, some using the wrist more, or maybe the elbow, or moving the whole arm as they write. Caffeine consumption can improve handwriting and reveal a much larger improvement in handwriting skills if taken in moderate quantities (Tucha Walitza et al, 2006). When caffeine is consumed in so many different amounts in many types of foods, it will improve people’s talent to perform certain responsibilities requiring a lot of attention. Also, when dispensed in the same amount, caffeine increases alertness and reduces fatigue. The opposing effects take place when caffeine is consumed in unbearable amounts or by people who are overly sensitive to the drug (Smith, 2002). As a result, caffeine is very helpful in which it can improve vigilance tasks and help people become more focused, so multitasking can be done. Use as a Repellent Caffeine is also used a repellent in which many people probably didn’t know. Many products for the use of mollusk control include metaldehyde or methiocarb for the main ingredients. However, both of these ingredients are highly poisonous by inhalation and to all animals. Caffeine is an all-natural product that is categorized as a generally recognized as safe (GRAF) product by the United States FDA. There have been many tests to support that caffeine is a well-proven repellent as well (Hollingsworth, Armstrong, Campbell, 2002). According to Hollingsworth, Armstrong, and Campbell (2002) spray applications containing one to two percent of caffeine have been reported to kill slugs during a test that experienced caffeine as a toxicant against frog pests. Another test (Figure 1) took action upon orchid snails where as they were put into Petri dishes with caffeine while the heart rates were taken under a microscope. Snails with caffeine concentrations of .1% or more had vulnerable and uneven heartbeats after a 24-hour period. The snails with higher caffeine concentrations were dead after 96 hours, or four days. As a result, caffeine has been proven to kill off mollusks and would be a much safer alternative for food crops. Taking caffeine on an everyday basis will cause the body to become addicted to the substance and cause withdrawals if missing a day. Withdrawals may include headaches or may cause a change in mood. When the amount of caffeine that is taken in is reduced, the body will become very responsive to adenosine. The responsiveness will cause blood pressure to drop, causing an overload of blood to rush to the head, which leads to a headache. Headaches can last between one to five days and aside from such painful headaches, restlessness, irritability, and constant fatigue may occur (Smith, 2002). All of the negative effects come from consuming too much caffeine. For that reason, if caffeine were used correctly and more sensibly, the negative effects would not take place. Negative effects on any drug can be avoided by following simple directions of not overdosing and if sensitive to the drug, don’t take at all. There are so many people that abuse it and take it for all of the wrong reasons. If they took caffeine for the right reasons, they would begin to see positive effects. Conclusion In conclusion, researchers are constantly exploring the many ways that caffeine is beneficial and has proven these effects in many cases. The main source of caffeine comes from soft drinks, in which it is an additive used to sweeten the taste. It is also very popular in coffee where it helps prevent against some diseases and has the effect of an increased attention rate and better mood. In sports, athletes thrive off caffeine to enhance performance because it is much cheaper and has less health effects than any other drug or steroid. Becoming an increase in all foods, caffeine is also used in many diets to help increase energy. The biggest factor in using caffeine is sleep. Sleep is unwanted in many situations such as driving and other vigilance tasks. Taking caffeine helps sleep by increasing alertness and mental functioning, while reducing fatigue. Other than increasing alertness and mental functioning, so many other effects take place in the behavior of individuals. Effects on human behavior include improving multitasking and developing psychomotor performance, such as improving handwriting skills. Another assured effect that caffeine takes part in is repelling things such as snails and slugs. It is proven much safer than other products and has been tested in many different experiments. Caffeine has much more positive effects that overcome the negative effects. The negative effects of caffeine all come from being abused or taken in too large of quantities, meaning that more people need to understand all of the effects. From athletes trying to enhance performance, people dieting, better functioning, an increase in alertness, to repelling things such as snails and slugs. Caffeine has many effects on the body to help improve behavior. Looking back at all of the beneficial ways in which caffeine helps, provides all the more reasons why it is used so often. References American Chemical Society (2003, October 15). Highly Active Compound Found in Coffee May Prevent Colon Cancer. Science Daily. Retrieved April 20, 2008, from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/10/031015031251.htm Caffeine boost in cancer battle. (2002, August 22). Retrieved April 20, 2008, from http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/08/21/cancer.research/ Coffee may help prevent liver cancer. (2005, February 15). USA Today. Retrieved April 20, 2008, from http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2005-02-15-coffee-liver_x.htm Coffee may prevent skin cancer. (2007, July 31). The Times of India. Retrieved April 20, 2008, from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Coffee_may_prevent_skin_cancer_/articleshow/2246470.cms Engle, P.L., Vasdias, T., et al. (1999). Effects of discontinuing coffee intake on iron deficient Guatemalan toddlers’ cognitive development and sleep. Early Human Development, 53, 251-269. Hollingsworth, R.G., Armstrong, J.W., Campbell, E. (2002). Caffeine as a repellent for slugs and snails. Nature, 417, 915. Keast, R.S.J., Riddell, L.J. (2007). Caffeine as a flavor additive in soft-drinks. Appetite, 49, 255-259. Magkos, F., Kavouras, S.T. (2005). Caffeine use in sports, pharmacokinetics in man, and cellular mechanisms of action. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 45, 535-562. Orbeta, R.L., Overpeck, M.D., et al. (2005). High caffeine intake in adolescents: associations with difficult sleeping and feeling tired in the morning. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 451-453. Smith, A. (2002). Effects of caffeine on human behavior. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 40, 1243-1255. Striegel-Moore, R.H., Franko, D.L., et al. (2006). Caffeine Intake in Eating Disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 39:2, 162-165. Tucha, O., Walitza, S. et al. (2006). The effect of caffeine on handwriting movements in skilled writers. Human Movement Science, 25, 523-535.

breaking away Essay -- essays research papers

The movie â€Å"Breaking Away† presents the story of a young man from working class origins who seeks to better himself by creating a persona through which he almost, but not quite, wins the girl. The rivalry between the townies and the college students sets the scene for the story of four friends who learn to accept themselves as they "break away" from childhood and from their underdog self-images. Dave Stoller, the main character, is a young man completely obsessed with cycling and Italy. His fantasies are so well fabricated that he drives his family crazy by behaving and speaking as if he were an Italian cyclist. Dave aspires to be one of the best cyclists yet the best racers are Italian. He feels that in order to be the best, he must be Italian. Dave carries his fantasy one step too far when he pretends to be an Italian exchange student in order to impress an attractive female college student. When he discovers that he actually likes her and confesses his charade, she ends the romance. This single act reveals to the audience that Dave is ashamed and embarrassed to tell Kat that the truth about his background; he obviously did not like who he was – a cutter. Dave felt that in order to win Kat he needed to pretend to be someone who he was not. However, his plan did not go over well causing him to lose Kat. Dave's father is a used-car salesman who disapproves of his son's Italian fantasies. Dave's father thinks his son is crazy, lazy, and that acting as if he were an ...

Christopher Columbus Essay -- Christopher Columbus Essays

The skills and qualities required of Christopher Columbus in order for him to lead a safe and successful voyage to undiscovered and unexplored lands weighed heavily on him, as he was initially placed in a headship position in the course of the planning of the journey because he originated and entertained the idea of finding a passage to China through unmarked waters. With his assiduousness and persistence, his appeal and intelligence, he was able to convince the King and Queen of Spain to fund his trip. These issues, along with the fact that he had never been a captain on a ship, began the fulfillment of a dream built on nothing. These steps taken were the foundation of what would be a great hero and leader.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One valuable attribute in any man in who is put into a dangerous position of both power and responsibility is the ability to keep a close connection between the leader and the follower, which often determines the success of the leader’s mission. In Columbus’ case, it was the capability to unite a crew, who, through storms, shipwrecks, disease, dissension, and even death, remained united enough to make several voyages to the â€Å"New World.† He, and leaders in general, must give an additional effort to motivate to cohorts in order to initiate and expand this alliance that is crucial to the attainment of goals.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another essential quality considered necessary for Columbus to command his expedition was a secure code...

United States Navy and Naval Flight Officer

â€Å"My dad is in the Navy,† my high-pitched, six-year-old voice would proudly proclaim when asked what my father's profession was. Other children's dads were managers, lawyers, and doctors, which was fine with me, but my dad was a Naval Officer. He sailed on gigantic aircraft carriers for a living. Now that was cool. My family is undoubtedly the thing that sparked my desire to become a Naval Officer: my dad was a Naval Academy graduate, my uncle a Navy doctor, and my grandfather a Naval Flight Officer. For me to join the Navy and become a Naval Officer is a continuance of a tradition generations old.I would consider it a great honor to be able to follow in their footsteps, but there's more to my decision than that. I am not blindly pursuing a career as a Naval Officer, I have done endless hours of research on this career choice, and the more research I do about the Navy and Naval Officers, the surer I am that this is what I want to become. Because Naval Officers have played such a large part in my family life, I know what type of person it takes to be one, and what type of extraordinary people they are.You can recognize them by the pride with which they hold themselves and the confidence with which they speak. They are the people who command battleships, fly jets, and dive submarines, things that most people can only imagine doing. They are willing not only to give up their life for their country, but also to lead likeminded men and women who are willing to do the same. They have to make split second decisions that test who they are and will vastly impact the lives of those under their command. This is the type of person I want to be; I want to be a Naval Officer.I realize that becoming a Naval Officer isn't going to be easy, that officers have to go through rigorous mental and physical training before they can receive their commissions. I look forward to the challenge; I know that the intensive training I will undergo on the path to becoming a Naval O fficer will make me better physically, mentally, and morally. I know that becoming a Naval Officer will push me to my limits and that the trials I face will result in me becoming the best that I can be. I hope that one day in the future I will have earned the right to call myself a United States Naval Officer.

Defined Marketing

Many people incorrectly believe that marketing and advertising are the same. From an organizational point of view, marketing is the process of determining the needs and wants of consumers, as well as profitable providing consumers with goods and services they are looking for, or even overcome their expectations. Marketing activity needs to ensure that the products are provided to users in places where they want them, and at the price they are willing to pay, and that information is provided directly by users. This paper will provide several definitions of marketing and explain its importance in organizational success, supported by examples from the business world. Dr. Philip Kotler defines marketing as â€Å"the science and art of exploring, creating, and delivering value to satisfy the needs of a target market at a profit. Marketing identifies unfulfilled needs and desires. It defines, measures and quantifies the size of the identified market and the profit potential. It pinpoints which segments the company is capable of serving best and it designs and promotes the appropriate products and services (Kotler, 2012)†. According to Kotler, marketing is also a social and managerial process by which individuals and groups – through creating, offering and exchanging products of value with others, are getting what they need or what they want. Peter Drucker wrote the following: â€Å"Because the purpose of business is to create and keep a customer, the business enterprise has two, and only two, basic functions: marketing and innovation. Marketing and innovation produce results; all the rest are costs. Marketing is the distinguishing, unique function of the business (Drucker, 1973). Marketing plays a central role in achieving organizational success, because it talks about creating and retaining customers. For this reason, companies are focused on marketing, recognizing the importance of building relationships with customers by providing customer satisfaction, and the importance of attracting new customers by creating additional value. Gronroos, in his definition of marketing, emphasizes the importance of building relationships, in which he said that the goal of marketing is to stablish, develop and commercialize long-term relationships with our customers, so that the objectives of stakeholders are met (1999, Gronroos). Since the majority of the market is characterized by fierce competition, this statement indicates a need to monitor and understand the competition, as rivals are those that will turn customers when their needs are not being met. In the exciting world of business, successes and failures are common. Marketing is the essence of all the changes, and it is often the decisive factor in their outcome. This is because the focus is on the customers and their changing needs. Successful organizations are those that are able, not only to get new customers, but also to retain them, by always meeting their changing needs. The company's activities are both reflected and shaped the world in which we live. Almost every year there is a new product or service that fully occupies the attention of the market and makes a great success. Companies are responding to customer needs by proposing that value by providing number of benefits that are offered to customers to meet their needs. Value of the intangible becomes physical, the proposal that may be a combination of products, services, information, and experiences. Brand represents an offer from a known source. Name brand, like McDonald's raises many associations with people: hamburgers, fun, children, fast food, coziness, and so on. These associations make up the brand image. All the companies are struggling to build a powerful brand – to be strong, popular and unique. The essence of the brand is to emotionally connect with consumers and achieve lasting impressions. It should be summed up in a few words, a simple statement that defines the quality, character and uniqueness of the brand. For example, Hallmark sums up the essence of their brand through two words â€Å"enriching lives,† and those two words are the basis for everything in Hallmark, the greeting card design, product development through customer service, merchandising, in-store communications and advertising, and to create a positive working environment for their employment. Hallmark brand essence permeates every aspect of the company and its operations. If we ask marketing and advertising experts around the world, what is the secret of Apple’s success, the answer would always be the same: It's all about the brand. Apple's success owes little to innovative products such as the iPhone, iPad or iPod. The key to their success is the brand that they created. It is no coincidence that during the '80s and '90s, executive marketing director and CEO of Apple, was the former CEO of Pepsi, John Sculley. It is he who, with the vision and energy of Steve Jobs, is responsible for the tectonic shift in the perception of marketing personal computers, which was created using the marketing strategy that was used in the war with Coca-Cola. That strategy has turned Apple into the largest computer company today. â€Å"People talk about technology, but Apple was a marketing company,† Sculley told the Guardian newspaper in 1997. â€Å"It was the marketing company of the decade (Kahney, 2002)†. The company that is aware of the barely noticeable changes that are taking place every day in the market has an advantage over a company that ignores those changes. The ability to anticipate future needs and to respond appropriately is a challenge that is always present in the marketing strategy of any organization. Despite the long tradition, there are no guarantees that all organizations will adopt marketing orientation. Companies that are marketing oriented, primarily focus on customer needs. The changes are seen as a common occurrence, and the ability to adapt is seen as a necessity for survival. The aim of marketing is a long-term customer satisfaction, rather than short-term deceptions and tricks.